1. This chapter presents children's physical growth and motor development during the primary years- the period from 6 to 8.
2. The emphasis of schools in almost all societies is on promoting academic learning
3. What appears to be less important to parents, teachers, and even child development researchers is physical growth and motor development during the primary years
4. Trends toward deemphasizing physical growth and activity have serious implications for teachers

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5. Cognitive and motor development interrelated
6. Children who are healthy, physically fit, and relaxed will perform well in school

1. The rate of physical growth slows considerably in the primary years.
2. Children of this age will usually gain only about 2 inches in height and 4 pounds in weight each year
3. Initially, boys tend to be taller and heavier than girls, but girls generally catch up to them near the end of the primary-grade period
4. Many primary-age children begin to take on a "slimmed down" appearance
5. A trademark of the primary years is the toothless grin
6. Children at this age lose their "baby teeth" one after the other
7. Cultural Variations in Physical Growth

1. Individual growth trends can differ markedly within each cultural group
2. Cultural differences in stature among primary-age children are often due to genetics
3. However, environment plays a role
4. Children of some cultural groups who live in poverty are smaller in stature because of poor nutrition and health care
5. In a study of black South African children, place of residence was found to influence stature in the primary years
6. Children who were living in their homelands were found to be taller and heavier than those whose families had been relocated to "resettlement communities"
7. Research in China has shown that, in some communities, only children are taller and heavier than those with siblings
8. Why the discrepancy? One explanation is that families with only one child receive special support from the government in China as part of a national policy to reduce the population
9. Other research shows that children in many non-industrialized countries are taller and heavier if their mothers have obtained a higher level of education

1. Great concern has been expressed around the world about the nutrition and health chare of very young children in poverty
2. There appears to be a widespread assumption that older children are somehow less vulnerable to these problems
3. Illness

1. primary-grade children living poverty are more often afflicted by infectious diseases, more regularly diagnosed with chronic conditions, such as asthma, and more frequently found to have dental problems
2. There are millions of uninsured children in the US. Such children are four times as likely to have necessary medical procedures delayed, and five times as likely to use the hospital emergency room as their only source of medical care

1. Nutrition

1. Children's health is related to good nutrition
2. Elementary children who eat well will suffer fewer serious illnesses
3. Children's mental as well as physical and motor competence are impaired by an inadequate diet during the primary years
4. Mothers who believe that they are not in control of their own circumstances are also more likely to have children who are obese

1. Injury

1. Injury is the leading cause of death among primary-grade children
2. Vigilant parents and teachers can safeguard children
3. Poor supervision has been identified as a major reason for preventable accidents involving children
4. Risk of injury is highest in single-parent homes, in those in which parents are very young, and in those in which drugs or alcohol are abused

1. Violence

1. During the time it takes you to read this chapter, one child will die from gunfire in this country
2. This death rate is equivalent to the loss of an entire classroom of children every 2 days
3. By age 5, a majority of children now living in low-income neighborhoods in the US have encountered a shooting
4. By adolescence, two-thirds have witnessed a homicide
5. Reported cases of child abuse rose from 60,000 in 1974, to 1.1. million in 1980, to 2.4 million in 1988
6. Between 1990 and 1995, numbers of child abuse cased in 35 states, with cases in one state growing by over 300%
7. In no other country in the world is violent criminal behavior more prevalent
8. Living in violent communities-urban war zones-presents both physical and mental risks
9. Violence also takes a great emotional toll
10. Preschool children exposed to chronic community violence show passive responses: clinging, fearfulness, bed-wetting, and quiet, withdrawn behavior
11. Primary-age children from violent communities exhibit more aggression and conduct problems, poor concentration, forgetfulness, and learning difficulties
12. Children may undergo major personality changes
13. Regression-the resumption of bed-wetting or thumb-sucking-is common
14. Children who live in danger often develop feelings of rage and despair
15. Many experience "psychic numbing" which causes them to stop caring or feeling

1. Homelessness

1. Today, children account for the fastest-growing segment of the homeless population
2. Homeless children are more likely to be depressed and anxious and they often display conduct problems and aggression
3. Homeless children may also suffer from malnutrition; their health status is generally far poorer than that of children living in poverty who have consistent-if not adequate-housing
4. They are more often afflicted by chronic illness and are less likely to be adequately immunized against childhood diseases

1. The basic large motor skills acquired in the preschool years -running, climbing, jumping, catching, throwing, kicking, and balancing-become refined and coordinated
2. Primary-grade children can now combine running, stopping, starting, and kicking abilities to play soccer
3. They can coordinate movements and balance to ride a two-wheel bicycle
4. They now use their bull bodies in throwing; they can shift body weight to one foot in preparation for a throw, then transfer weight to the other foot as the throw is made
5. On the average, boys outperform girls on many large motor skills during the primary years
6. Children also show more refined abilities in the use of small muscles in the primary years
7. They can coordinate the use of vision and hands and fingers, which enables them to draw more representational pictures, write their names legibly, and handle and read books
8. These advances in motor ability are partly due to increases in muscle tone, strength, and coordination, but also to brain growth
9. The Body-Brain Connection

1. early researchers recognized a connection between the brain and motor ability
2. However, they viewed motor development as an outcome of brain maturation-a physical sign that synapses and nerve cells were forming
3. A new theory about the body-brain connection has now been proposed: the dynamic systems theory is based on research suggesting that motor action, cognitive development, and behavior are all part of a single, dynamic system in the brain
4. This theory holds that physical play and exercise are critical, in part, because they promote learning and academic success
5. Denying elementary children-or, for that matter, adolescents or adults-opportunities to move deprives them of key elements in the body-brain system
6. Children need to jump, run, swing, throw, and balance to become intellectually competent

1. Generally, the somewhat wild and chaotic play actions of preschoolers give way to more organized and rule-governed activities in the primary years
2. Children in this developmental period often wish t acquire real skills and become grown up
3. Functional Play

1. When primary children are released onto the playground after a long morning in school, they can often be observed running, jumping, screaming, and chasing
2. Many researchers call such open-ended, repetitive motor activity functional play
3. Children in all cultures engage in functional play
4. Traditionally, functional play has been considered less sophisticated, socially and cognitively, than make-believe or games with rules

1. Rough-and-tumble Play

1. There is evidence that this form of play enhances both physical and social development
2. How does rough-and-tumble play change in the primary years? As with other play forms, it becomes organized and rule-governed
3. The amount of rough-and-tumble play varies from one culture to another
4. Rough-and-tumble play rarely leads to actual aggression
5. Primary children appear to clearly understand the differences between play jostling or wrestling and real fighting

1. Pretend Play

1. One trend in children's play in the primary years is that make-believe declines as organized games increase
2. Why does make-believe disappear? Where does it go? It is possible that pretend play disappears because it is not sanctioned beyond they preschool years in most societies
3. Subtle messages from parents and teachers may let children know that this form of play is immature or otherwise inappropriate
4. As with other forms of play, primary make-believe becomes exceedingly structured
5. Children's pretending becomes more elaborate than the spontaneous, free-flowing make-believe of the preschool years, taking on many of the characteristics of adult-level theater
6. Children often enact real-life settings or re-create the scripts of favorite books, television show, and movies

1. Games with Rules

1. Games with rules are believed to predominate in children's motor play during the primary years
2. Children often spontaneously organize their own ball games, races, or besting contests
3. In communities in which children do play games, major differences can be found in the content or level of competition of the games that are played
4. Of course, which games are played will be determined by culture
5. One way that games differ is in the amount of competition involved
6. Among Euro-American children, a high degree of competition is common
7. This likely reflects the attitudes and valued competencies of these cultural groups
8. Ideals of "rugged individualism" and corporate competition within these societies may underlie the emergence of competitive games in childhood
9. Intense competition may create undue stress in children, causing their interest in sports and games to decline over time

1. Teasing

1. Teasing becomes an important play form in many societies as children enter the primary years
2. Children who learn emotional control through such play may be less likely to become violent when they are older
3. A peer structure which has specific leaders in charge may provide security and comfort to these young children. Thus, teasing is a vital part of peer group organization

1. Rituals

1. Rituals- playful, predictable, often rhythmic routines-are common in the elementary years
2. Examples:

1. A child on a climber calls down to his peers in a familiar rhythmic chant: "Nya nya nya-nya nya, you can't catch me!" His peers give chase
2. As two children walk along a sidewalk, one announces, "Step on a crack, break your momma's back!" The two children slow their pace ad look down, carefully placing each step

1. They are somehow transmitted to children through the ages, although few parents remember directly teaching them to their children
2. Why do primary-age children perform these repetitive rituals? Perhaps they reflect children's need for order and routine at this age
3. Rituals may serve the function of socializing children into childhood culture
4. In essence, the rituals create a special way of interaction or speaking that is exclusive for children

1. There are threats to motor play in modern life
2. Technology and even school reform have reduced children's play time
3. Television

1. Children who watch many hours of television engage in less active play
2. In the US, television watching has been linked to obesity in childhood and adolescence
3. This may be due to a decline in active play,, but also to exposure to commercials that promote foods high in sugars and fats
4. Metabolic rates slowed significantly more during TV viewing in obese children
5. Children of all classes, cultures, and abilities watch TV
6. Children who spend time in after-school care and those who have older siblings to play with have been found less likely to watch television and more likely to engage in active play

1. School Policy

1. Changes in school policies in some communities have threatened opportunities for motor play through reducing or even eliminating recess
2. Several studies suggest that eliminating active play reduces children's attention in school and their potential for learning
3. Most schools no longer offer PE on a daily basis
4. One study found that during a typical 30-minute PE class, children actually exercise for less than 2 minutes

1. Cerebral Palsy

1. Children with cerebral palsy constitute the largest percentage of elementary students with physical challenges who require special services
2. This condition results from damage to the brain often from oxygen deprivation during the birth process or trauma in early childhood
3. Since those areas of the brain responsible for motor coordination are affected, impairment of fine and large motor abilities often results

1. Muscular Dystrophy

1. Muscular dystrophy is a hereditary disorder that also affects motor functioning
2. The condition is characterized by a steady weakening of skeletal muscles

1. Spina Bifida

1. Spina bifida is a congenital condition in which the spinal cord and nerve roots are damaged
2. Milder forms may involve slight sensory impairments and walking difficulty
3. More severe cases can result in paraplegia (paralysis of both legs), severe sensory impairment, and incontinence (inability to control the bladder)

1. Meeting Special Motor Play Needs in School

1. A child can be given a marker or pen pushed through a rubber ball to assist in drawing or writing
2. Instead of a traditional desk, an adapted seating device can be provided so that a child can lean or even lie while doing school work
3. A child an be given a special oversized spoon or a dripless cup to assist in independent eating
4. New play equipment is being designed to meet the needs of children with physical challenges
5. Accessible playscapes with ramps, support bars, and other devices are becoming more common on school playgrounds

1. Children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are extremely active and have difficulty controlling their attention and impulses
2. Children with ADHD are quickly noticed by teachers; these children have difficulty sitting for long periods, attending to learning tasks, and following rules or quietness and impulse control
3. What causes ADHD? The most prevalent theory is that the condition results from neurological impairment
4. Ironically, hyperactivity might be caused by a sluggish brain