In this chapter, we will consider genetics, prenatal development, and childbirth from a multicultural perspective.

What children become is determined, in part, by what they have inherited biologically. Genetics and experience interact to affect how children turn out.

1. Genetics: An Overview

1. Genes and chromosomes

1. The process of child development begins at conception
2. Information on the characteristics of parents and their ancestors is carried in the sperm and egg in genes
3. These genes are comprised of molecules of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
4. Genes are ordered along larger bodies called chromosomes, which are contained in the nucleus of all human cells; chromosomes carry all the genetic information necessary for the development of a unique individual
5. Typical cells in the body contain 46 chromosomes
6. Sperm and egg cells are unique in that each only contains 23 chromosomes
7. When one parent's genetic information leads to a particular trait and the other parent's leads to another, the gene for one of these traits will be dominant-it will win this genetic tug-of-war and express its characteristics in the developing human
8. A recessive gene only expresses itself when it is paired with another recessive gene
9. Most traits involve a combination of several genes, and sometimes traits are blended
10. The environment plays a role in whether genetic information inherited by the child will actually be expressed
11. There is no such thing as a smart gene
12. What a person inherits from parents at conception is a heritability range-a range of potential intellectual abilities
13. The level of intellectual capacity depends on both genetics and life's opportunities
14. Of all the human traits determined at conception, none is as significant as gender
15. It is the genetic contribution of the father that determines gender
16. Twins can result from one of two genetic processes

1. two separate eggs can be released from the mother's ovaries and be fertilized by two different sperm cells resulting in two genetically distinct siblings-fraternal twins
2. identical twins occur in the instance when a fertilized egg divides immediately after conception into two separate zygotes

2. Hereditary Diseases

1. Some problems in development before birth can be attributed to genes and chromosomes
2. These can lead to physical malformations, mental retardation, or poor health
3. One condition caused by chromosomal abnormalities is Down syndrome-such persons have received three number 21 chromosomes instead of the typical pair
4. In Rh disease, the infant inherits blood from the father that is incompatible with that of the mother
5. If the fetus inherits Rh-positive blood from the father and their mother is Rh-negative, the mother's body will produce antibodies that can become toxic
6. A family's firstborn child is not at great risk, since not enough time has elapsed for antibodies to form before the child is born
7. Some genetically derived problems afflict only males or females
8. Diseases that affect only males include hemophilia, a condition that leads to internal bleeding, and Klinefelter's syndrome, which can result in sterility, physical malformation, and mental health problems
9. Only females are afflicted with Turner's syndrome, a condition that leads to physical malformation and sterility

2. Genetics from a multicultural Perspective

1. Introduction

1. Sandra Scarr makes the point that there are at least three significant sources of variation in human development: the biological evolution of the species, the cultural heritage, and the genetic makeup of the individual human being
2. A full understanding of human genetics requires an understanding of the complex ways all three factors interact

2. Becoming Human

1. Genetics regulates most directly the process of becoming human
2. That so many fundamental characteristics can be observed across cultures suggests that human beings are really more alike than they are different, regardless of where they grow up or what their individual circumstances may be

3. Becoming an Individual

1. There are individual differences in development
2. These individual variations may be partly determined biologically from Scarr's view
3. According to Scarr, environments provide a range of opportunities for development
4. Scarr argues that environment can shape the way children turn out and also children can create their own environments
5. A child who has inherited biologically a pleasant temperament may elicit positive behaviors from parents or peers
6. It can mean that a child's temperamental disposition leads to a nurturing environment, not the other way around

4. Becoming an individual within a cultural group

1. Differences among cultural groups do exist.
2. Some of these differences are genetically derived, while others are rooted in the unique experiences of groups throughout history
3. Most cultural differences have evolved, from Scarr's perspective, as groups have adapted to the unique challenges of their surroundings
4. Cultures have defined what is important for children to know, believe, and be able to do, based on what is needed for survival of the group
5. Some cultural variations can be related directly to genetics
6. Examples of this is that differences have been found across ethnic groups in the motoric activity of infants
7. Stature and weight vary across cultures
8. Certain hereditary diseases are more prevalent within particular ethnic groups
9. The conclusion is that cultural differences in child development stem mostly from the unique experiences and histories of various ethnic groups

3. Prenatal Development: An Overview

1. Three distinct stages of prenatal development can be identified

1. the period f the ovum, which lasts about 2 weeks after conception, involves the rapid growth of a shapeless mass of cells; miscarriages occur most often during this stage
2. The second period of prenatal development, the period of the embryo, begins around 2 weeks after conception and extends to approximately the eighth week; almost all major organs and structures of the human body are formed during this stage, and many begin to function
3. The final prenatal stage, the period of the fetus, is marked by continued development of the organs and rapid growth

4. Environment, Culture, and Fetal Development

1. Introduction

1. Environmental agents can negatively influence fetal development. These include poor nutrition, drugs, and maternal illness during pregnancy
2. Due to some of these factors, children of color have a rockier road to ravel from conception to birth,
3. On almost any measure of fetal development or neonatal health, African American, Puerto Ricans, Native Americans, Mexican American, and Asian Americans do not fare as well as Caucasians
4. For many traditionally under-represented groups, the infant mortality rate is almost twice as high as that for whites
5. One explanation is poverty
6. Poverty rates are higher for almost all under-represented populations

2. Drugs

1. Substance abuse by a pregnant mother can have catastrophic effects on the developing fetus
2. Heroin has been associated with premature birth, physical malformations, respiratory difficulties, lower birth weight, and greater risk of death at birth
3. Newborn of heroin-addicted mothers become addicted
4. These babies begin their lives suffering withdrawal symptoms
5. Crack-addicted mothers have a greater chance of miscarriage or premature delivery
6. Their newborns are more likely to suffer brain damage, low birth weight, and other physical malformations
7. Crack babies must suffer a withdrawal period that is significantly longer than that for children born to heroin-using mothers
8. Maternal smoking has been linked to miscarriage, premature delivery, and low birth weight
9. Even smoking by fathers has been associated with genetic abnormalities
10. Evidence suggests that effects of smoking may be long-term
11. Children of smoking mothers have been found to be less responsive, fussier, and more sluggish during infancy, and to perform poorly on attention and picture-recognition tasks in the preschool years
12. In 70% of cases of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)- a condition that causes healthy babies to suddenly die in their sleep-mothers smoked during pregnancy
13. Mothers who drink heavily during pregnancy may give birth to babies with fetal alcohol syndrome, a condition that can lead to nervous system impairment, mental retardation, hyperactivity, and deficiencies in weight, height, and brain size
14. Mothers in poverty are more likely to abuse illegal drugs, probably due to the stress associated with being poor.
15. Drug abuse may reflect a struggle to find some comfort in a difficult life
16. Poor mothers of all cultures abuse drugs
17. Mothers of historically under-represented groups are more likely to use highly addictive drugs, heroin and cocaine in particular
18. Among all women of childbearing age, only 5% use cocaine; when women under age 22 are excluded, the rate drops to 3%
19. Drugs cannot be considered common in any class or culture

3. Nutrition and Health

1. Poor nutrition and maternal illness can influence fetal development
2. Children born to malnourished mothers may suffer cognitive delays later in life; this may be due in part to the fact that malnutrition during important periods of fetal brain growth can impede nervous system development
3. Maternal illnesses can have a serous effect on prenatal development
4. A major barrier to adequate health care for many mothers is economic; good nutrition and regular medical visits can be expensive
5. The WIC program which is designed to provide low-income pregnant mothers with high-protein and iron-fortified foods, nutritional education, counseling, and regular medical evaluation
6. Advocates of young children must regularly remind policy makers that investments in prenatal health care now will lead to long-term savings as children continue to grow and develop in healthy ways throughout their lives

4. Teen Pregnancy

1. Teenage mothers have an increased rate of complications in pregnancy and childbirth because their young bodies are not yet ready to provide for optimal fetal development
2. One theory is that a young girl's body which is undergoing a growth spurt itself, will compete with the developing fetus for nutrients
3. Babies of teenage mothers may be at risk; they suffer a higher incidence of infant mortality and a greater likelihood of mental deficiencies after birth
4. It is now believed that these risks are not associated solely with the age of the mother
5. Teenage mothers are more likely to live in poverty and hence have poor medical care and fewer nutritional resources
6. Teenage mothers and their newborns suffer fewer problems of development when they live with their parents before, during, and after birth
7. Grandmothers play a critical parenting and parent educator role within extended families

5. Childbirth Across Cultures

1. Introduction

1. Every culture has specific beliefs and practices regarding bringing new babies into the world
2. Although an astounding variety in childbirth methods exists, all cultures provide a common set of processes and supports that are needed to ensure a healthy and joyous delivery

2. The Joy of Childbirth

1. All cultures value the birth process as a momentous event
2. Childbirth is a joyous event in all cultures; a new baby is almost always seen as a source of happiness and affection, regardless of the associated economic or emotional challenges

3. Childbirth Support

1. In all cultures, some person is responsible for educating the new mother and supporting her through the birth process
2. The background and training of support persons vary, d>Among all women of childbearing age, only 5% use cocaine; when women under age 2 are excluded, the rate drops to 3%
3. Drugs cannot be considered common in any class or culture

4. Nutrition and Health

1. Poor nutrition and maternal illness can influence fetal development
2. Children born to malnourished mothers may suffer cognitive delays later in life; this may be due in part to the fact that malnutrition during important periods of fetal brain growth can impede nervous system development
3. Maternal illnesses can have a serous effect on prenatal development
4. A major barrier to adequate health care for many mothers is economic; good nutrition and regular medical visits can be expensive
5. The WIC program which is designed to provide low-income pregnant mothers with high-protein and iron-fortified foods, nutritional education, counseling, and regular medical evaluation
6. Advocates of young children must regularly remind policy makers that investments in prenatal health care now will lead to long-term savings as children continue to grow and develop in healthy ways throughout their lives

5. Teen Pregnancy

1. Teenage mothers have an increased rate of complications in pregnancy and childbirth because their young bodies are not yet ready to provide for optimal fetal development
2. One theory is that a young girl's body which is undergoing a growth spurt itself, will compete with the developing fetus for nutrients
3. Babies of teenage mothers may be at risk; they suffer a higher incidence of infant mortality and a greater likelihood of mental deficiencies after birth
4. It is now believed that these risks are not associated solely with the age of the mother
5. Teenage mothers are more likely to live in poverty and hence have poor medical care and fewer nutritional resources
6. Teenage mothers and their newborns suffer fewer problems of development when they live with their parents before, during, and after birth
7. Grandmothers play a critical parenting and parent educator role within extended families

6. Childbirth Across Cultures

1. Introduction

1. Every culture has specific beliefs and practices regarding bringing new babies into the world
2. Although an astounding variety in childbirth methods exists, all cultures provide a common set of processes and supports that are needed to ensure a healthy and joyous delivery

2. The Joy of Childbirth

1. All cultures value the birth process as a momentous event
2. Childbirth is a joyous even in all cultures; a new baby is almost always seen as a source of happiness and affection, regardless of the associated economic or emotional challenges

3. Childbirth Support

1. In all cultures, some person is responsible for educating the new mother and supporting her through the birth process
2. The background and training of support persons vary, depending on how a particular culture defines the birth event

4. Childbirth Education and Preparation

1. All societies have some provision for preparing mothers for childbirth, although the length and nature of this preparation vary. In the US, preparation for childbirth is formal and extensive
2. In the Yucatan, childbirth preparation is brief and informal; this may be partly because of a belief that childbirth is necessarily frightening and painful

5. Childbirth Procedures

1. Delivery practices also vary by culture
2. In a typical American birth, parents are provided with a pleasant, home-like birthing room in a hospital, where they will stay throughout labor and delivery
3. In the Yucatan, mothers give birth in their own homes surrounded by neighbors and family and a community midwife
4. Mothers are taught to accept that childbirth is painful and are expected to express their discomfort in an outpouring of emotion

6. Review Critical Concepts